Syllabus - National Movement during Second World War :- August Resolution, Individual Civil Dis-obedience Movement, Cripps Mission, Quit India Movement, C.R. Das Formula, Gandhi-Jinnah Talk, Bhoola Bhai Desai - Liyaquat Ali Pact, Wavell Plan and Simla Conference, Provincial and General elections, Cabinet Mission Plan, Indian National Army, Direct Action Day, Interim Government, Mountbatten Plan, Indian Independence Act 1947.Communal riots and Partition of India.
Showing posts with label UKPSC(Mains) - Paper 2. Show all posts
Showing posts with label UKPSC(Mains) - Paper 2. Show all posts
Monday, 4 May 2015
Paper 2 - History of India, National Movement, Society and Culture
Syllabus - Gupta Dynasty :- Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Skandagupta; Later Gupta rulers and decline of Gupta Dynasty; Political, Social, Economic, Religious and Cultural life during Gupta period, Post-Gupta Period: Harshvardhan and his times; Pal, Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, Chola, Chalukya, Pallava Chandel, Paramar, Gaharwad, Chauhan, Post-Gupta Period: Political, Social, Economic, Religious and Cultural life.
Maurya Empirehttp://selfstudyhistory.com/2015/02/26/maurya-empire/
Guptas - 320A.D. - 550 A.D.
http://selfstudyhistory.com/2015/03/02/guptas/
The GUPTAS with their seat of power in Uttar Pradesh an dBihar ruled over north and western India for about 160 years, until the middle of the sixth century A.D. Then North India again split up into several kingdoms. The white Hunas established their supermacy over Kashmir, Punjab and Western India from about A.D. 500 onwards. North and Western India passed under the control of about half a dozen feudatories who parcelled out Gupta empire among themselves. Gradually one of these dynastiesruling at Thanesar in Haryana extended its authority over all the other feudatories. The ruler who brought it about was Harshavardhana(A.D. 606 - 647). Harsha made Kannauj the seat of his power from where he extended his authority in all directions.
Pushyabhuti Dynasty - Harshavardhan(606-647A.D.) - 41 years rule
The Pushyabhuti or Vardhan dynasty was founded at Thaneswar by Pushyabhuti probably towards the beginning of the 6th century. Pushyabhuti were feudatories of the Guptas, but he assumed independence after the Hun invasions.
The first important ruler of the dynasty was Prabhakara Vardhan.
Prabhakara Vardhan was succeeded by his eldest son Rajyavardhan.
Rajyavardhan had to face problems from the day of his succession to the throne.
Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj and husband of Rajyashri(sister of Rajyavardhan) was murdered by Deva Gupta(the ruler of Malwa) who in alliance with Shashanka(ruler of Gaud or North-Western Bengal) now occupied Kannauj and imprisoned Rajyashri.
Rajyavardhan, therefore, undertook a campaign against Deva Gupta and killed him but he was killed by Shashanka in 606 A.D. In the meanwhile Rajyashri escaped into the forests of Central India.
After ascending the throne Harsha first rescued his widowed sister Rajyashri, from the Vindhyas forest, where she was going to throw herself into the fire.
Harsha drove out Shashanka from Kannauj who had occupied it after the killing of Rajyavardhan. He not only unified Kannauj with Thaneswar but also made it his new capital.
Harsha thereafter, proceed towards the east against Shashanka, he conquered Magadha and Shashank's empire.
Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II, the Maitrika ruler of Vallabhi. However, Harsha, in order to secure thge safety of the western boundary, reinstated him and gave his daughter in marriage to Dhruvasena II. Dhruvasena II accepted the position of a feudatory vassal. It was an important diplomatic achievement of Harsha.
The detail accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang throw a good deal of light on the political, social and religious conditions of the time. The narratives open a store house of reliable information. The Harshacharita written by Bana who lived at the court of Harsha is generally recognized as a historical document to throw a flood of light on the political, social and religious condition of India during his time. Harsha himself was a writer of high standard.
His three valuable works named ‘Ratnavali’, ‘Priyadarsika’ and ‘Nagananda’ written in Sanskrit reveal his literary flare. All the three were romantic comedies. Harsha was so famous in the literary world that Jayadeva, the celebrated author of Gita Govinda compared him with Kalidas and Bhasa.
Earlier Capital - Thaneswar (Haryana) and then Capital - Kannauj(in U.P)
After consolidating his position in the north Harsha had an expedition to the south in 620 AD. He was checked by king Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty. In the battle on the bank of Narmada Harsha was defeated with a heavy loss. This single defeat checked Harsha to extend his empire beyond Narmada. The failure to conquer Deccan is also described in the Aihole inscription of the poet Ravikirti(court poet of Pulakeshin II) of 643 AD. Harsha’s ambition to bring the south under his northern empire ended without success.
Harsha himself was a strong believer of Mahayana Buddhism.
Harsha used to summon a religious assembly at Prayag near Allahabad. The ceremonials lasted for seventy five days during which the Buddha, the Siva and the sun were worshipped in different dates.
In the year 643 A.D., Harsha held a great religious assembly in his capital at Kanauj(Kannauj Assembly) on the bank of the river Ganges. The purpose of the assembly was to highlight the teachings of Buddha. On that occasion, Harsha also wanted to honour the Chinese Master of the Law, Hiuen Tsang
Harsha was the chief patron of the University of Nalanda where about 10,000 students from all parts of India and abroad studied.
Feudalism
Insight into Harsha's state is given by the discovery of a set of plates of copper(Copper plate inscription), dating back to 632 CE, recording the gift of land by a military officer under Harsha's service to two Brahmins. Donations before Harsha's reign had come from either a royal prince or one of the provincial governors.
History of Harsha Vardhana
http://www.historydiscussion.net/empires/history-of-harsha-vardhana-indian-history/602
Harshavardhan’s Empire: Sources, Accession and Other Details
http://www.historydiscussion.net/biography/harshavardhans-empire-sources-accession-and-other-details/3084
The Empire of Harsha Vardhana
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/the-empire-of-harsha-vardhana/2513 (Map of Harsha empire)
Hiuen Tsang and his Importance in Harsha’s Empire
http://www.historydiscussion.net/biography/hiuen-tsang-and-his-importance-in-harshas-empire/2521
Palas Empire(750 - 1150)
The Palas
http://www.historydiscussion.net/empires/the-history-of-early-medieval-northern-india-indian-history/608 (Pala, Partihara, Rashtrakuta)
http://www.uhemu.com/pala_empire30807.htm (full details of Pala empire)
Maurya Empirehttp://selfstudyhistory.com/2015/02/26/maurya-empire/
Guptas - 320A.D. - 550 A.D.
http://selfstudyhistory.com/2015/03/02/guptas/
The GUPTAS with their seat of power in Uttar Pradesh an dBihar ruled over north and western India for about 160 years, until the middle of the sixth century A.D. Then North India again split up into several kingdoms. The white Hunas established their supermacy over Kashmir, Punjab and Western India from about A.D. 500 onwards. North and Western India passed under the control of about half a dozen feudatories who parcelled out Gupta empire among themselves. Gradually one of these dynastiesruling at Thanesar in Haryana extended its authority over all the other feudatories. The ruler who brought it about was Harshavardhana(A.D. 606 - 647). Harsha made Kannauj the seat of his power from where he extended his authority in all directions.
Pushyabhuti Dynasty - Harshavardhan(606-647A.D.) - 41 years rule
The Pushyabhuti or Vardhan dynasty was founded at Thaneswar by Pushyabhuti probably towards the beginning of the 6th century. Pushyabhuti were feudatories of the Guptas, but he assumed independence after the Hun invasions.
The first important ruler of the dynasty was Prabhakara Vardhan.
Prabhakara Vardhan was succeeded by his eldest son Rajyavardhan.
Rajyavardhan had to face problems from the day of his succession to the throne.
Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj and husband of Rajyashri(sister of Rajyavardhan) was murdered by Deva Gupta(the ruler of Malwa) who in alliance with Shashanka(ruler of Gaud or North-Western Bengal) now occupied Kannauj and imprisoned Rajyashri.
Rajyavardhan, therefore, undertook a campaign against Deva Gupta and killed him but he was killed by Shashanka in 606 A.D. In the meanwhile Rajyashri escaped into the forests of Central India.
After ascending the throne Harsha first rescued his widowed sister Rajyashri, from the Vindhyas forest, where she was going to throw herself into the fire.
Harsha drove out Shashanka from Kannauj who had occupied it after the killing of Rajyavardhan. He not only unified Kannauj with Thaneswar but also made it his new capital.
Harsha thereafter, proceed towards the east against Shashanka, he conquered Magadha and Shashank's empire.
Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II, the Maitrika ruler of Vallabhi. However, Harsha, in order to secure thge safety of the western boundary, reinstated him and gave his daughter in marriage to Dhruvasena II. Dhruvasena II accepted the position of a feudatory vassal. It was an important diplomatic achievement of Harsha.
The detail accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang throw a good deal of light on the political, social and religious conditions of the time. The narratives open a store house of reliable information. The Harshacharita written by Bana who lived at the court of Harsha is generally recognized as a historical document to throw a flood of light on the political, social and religious condition of India during his time. Harsha himself was a writer of high standard.
His three valuable works named ‘Ratnavali’, ‘Priyadarsika’ and ‘Nagananda’ written in Sanskrit reveal his literary flare. All the three were romantic comedies. Harsha was so famous in the literary world that Jayadeva, the celebrated author of Gita Govinda compared him with Kalidas and Bhasa.
Earlier Capital - Thaneswar (Haryana) and then Capital - Kannauj(in U.P)
After consolidating his position in the north Harsha had an expedition to the south in 620 AD. He was checked by king Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty. In the battle on the bank of Narmada Harsha was defeated with a heavy loss. This single defeat checked Harsha to extend his empire beyond Narmada. The failure to conquer Deccan is also described in the Aihole inscription of the poet Ravikirti(court poet of Pulakeshin II) of 643 AD. Harsha’s ambition to bring the south under his northern empire ended without success.
Harsha himself was a strong believer of Mahayana Buddhism.
Harsha used to summon a religious assembly at Prayag near Allahabad. The ceremonials lasted for seventy five days during which the Buddha, the Siva and the sun were worshipped in different dates.
In the year 643 A.D., Harsha held a great religious assembly in his capital at Kanauj(Kannauj Assembly) on the bank of the river Ganges. The purpose of the assembly was to highlight the teachings of Buddha. On that occasion, Harsha also wanted to honour the Chinese Master of the Law, Hiuen Tsang
Harsha was the chief patron of the University of Nalanda where about 10,000 students from all parts of India and abroad studied.
Feudalism
Insight into Harsha's state is given by the discovery of a set of plates of copper(Copper plate inscription), dating back to 632 CE, recording the gift of land by a military officer under Harsha's service to two Brahmins. Donations before Harsha's reign had come from either a royal prince or one of the provincial governors.
History of Harsha Vardhana
http://www.historydiscussion.net/empires/history-of-harsha-vardhana-indian-history/602
Harshavardhan’s Empire: Sources, Accession and Other Details
http://www.historydiscussion.net/biography/harshavardhans-empire-sources-accession-and-other-details/3084
The Empire of Harsha Vardhana
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/the-empire-of-harsha-vardhana/2513 (Map of Harsha empire)
Hiuen Tsang and his Importance in Harsha’s Empire
http://www.historydiscussion.net/biography/hiuen-tsang-and-his-importance-in-harshas-empire/2521
Palas Empire(750 - 1150)
The Palas
http://www.historydiscussion.net/empires/the-history-of-early-medieval-northern-india-indian-history/608 (Pala, Partihara, Rashtrakuta)
http://www.uhemu.com/pala_empire30807.htm (full details of Pala empire)
Friday, 24 April 2015
Paper 2 - History of India, National Movement, Society and Culture
Syllabus -
Southern India : Sangam Age, Yadavas of Deogiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal,
Hoysals of Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of Madurai. Chola dynasty. Political, Social,
Economic, Religious and Cultural life.
Vijayanagar and Bahmani Empire-Political Social, Eonomic, Religions and Cultural
life, Political, Social, Economical and Cultural life of Delhi Sultanate.
Vijayanagara-Bahmani Kingdoms: Polity, Law and Other Details
Three important dynasties ruled Vijayanagar Empire.
Ibn Battuta, the famous Muslim explorer who came to India during regime of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, belonged to Morocco who visited Vijayanagara in the reign of Harihara I.
Domingos Paes (16th century) was a Portuguese traveller who visited the Vijayanagara Empire around the year 1520. His account of the capital Vijayanagara (Hampi,+ is the most detailed of all historic descriptions of this ancient city. He visited the city during the rule of King Krishna Deva Raya and recorded his impressions of Vijayanagara state in his Chronica.
Nayankara System - Feudal system developed which was known as Nayankar System. The military officers called as Amar Nayaks who got land in lieu of their salary and that land was called as Amaram. Amaram did not fall under Rajya directly. Amar Nayaks couldn’t introduce coins and taxes though they could maintain army and collect revenue themselves. Over the period Amar Nayaks became hereditary. There were 200 such Amar Nayaks who became very powerful as they had their own armies, source of revenue, and maintained law and order themselves in their areas.
Many of them declared themselves independent especially after the central authority declined.
Unlike Chola dynasty, Grams did not enjoy similar level of autonomy. Under Cholas they could elect their executive bodies. In Vijayanagar Empire central authority had direct role in village administration.
Virupaksh Temple built by Chalukyas in Hampi but Vijayanagar rulers later also contributed to it, Vithal Swami Temple and Rama Swami Temple built by KrishnaDevaRaya
Krishna Deva Raya was great scholar of Sanskrit and Telugu. His work Amuktmalyada in Telugu reflect his grasp on telugu literature.
Srikrishnadevaraya Krishna Deva Raya’s reign is considered the golden age of Telugu literature. Eight poets known as Astadiggaja (eight elephants in the eight cardinal points such as North, South etc.) were part of his court. According to the Vaishnavite religion there are eight elephants in eight corners in space and hold the earth in its place. Similarly these eight poets were the eight pillars of his literary assembly. Who constituted Ashtadiggajas is not certain. But, it is popularly believed to include these : Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyala-raju Rama-Bhadrudu, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushanudu and Tenali Rama Krishna.
Among these eight poets Allasani Peddana is considered to be the greatest and is given the title of Andhra Kavita Pitamaha (the father of Telugu poetry). Manu-charitrama which was patronised to Sri Krishna Devaraya is his popular prabhanda work.
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan. He was a Persian merchant. He came to India at the age of forty two and joined the services of Bahmani kingdom. Slowly he became the chief minister due to his personal qualities. He divided the kingdom into 8 Atraf (provinces), each headed by a Governor
Southern India : Sangam Age, Yadavas of Deogiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal,
Hoysals of Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of Madurai. Chola dynasty. Political, Social,
Economic, Religious and Cultural life.
Vijayanagar and Bahmani Empire-Political Social, Eonomic, Religions and Cultural
life, Political, Social, Economical and Cultural life of Delhi Sultanate.
Vijayanagara-Bahmani Kingdoms: Polity, Law and Other Details
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/vijayanagara-bahmani-kingdoms-polity-law-and-other-details/2026(Nayankara System); detail account
http://holisticthought.com/vijayanagar-and-bahmani-kingdoms/ nice one
http://historyofindia-madhunimkar.blogspot.com/2009/09/vijaynagar-kingdom.html
http://byjusclasses.com/sites/all/themes/professional-responsive-theme/images/pdf/History-Lecture-17-notes.pdf (another nice one)Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal. They originally served under the Kakatiya ruler and when the kingdom was overrun by Tughlaqs, they shifted to Kampili. Kampili was also overtaken by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, and they were taken to Delhi and were converted to Islam. Later they were sent by the King to suppress the rebellion in Kampli. They converted back to Hinduism and with the assistance and advice of sage Vidyaranya of Sringeri, they laid the foundation of the kingdom of Vijayanagar on the banks of the river Tunghabhadra. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory. The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control.
Three important dynasties ruled Vijayanagar Empire.
- Sangama dynasty (1336-1486 C.E.)
- Saluva dynasty (1486 – 1505 C.E.)
- Tuluva dynasty (1505 – 1569 C.E.)
- Aravidu dynasty (1569 – 1672 C.E.) (Not very significant dynasty)
Ibn Battuta, the famous Muslim explorer who came to India during regime of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, belonged to Morocco who visited Vijayanagara in the reign of Harihara I.
Domingos Paes (16th century) was a Portuguese traveller who visited the Vijayanagara Empire around the year 1520. His account of the capital Vijayanagara (Hampi,+ is the most detailed of all historic descriptions of this ancient city. He visited the city during the rule of King Krishna Deva Raya and recorded his impressions of Vijayanagara state in his Chronica.
Nayankara System - Feudal system developed which was known as Nayankar System. The military officers called as Amar Nayaks who got land in lieu of their salary and that land was called as Amaram. Amaram did not fall under Rajya directly. Amar Nayaks couldn’t introduce coins and taxes though they could maintain army and collect revenue themselves. Over the period Amar Nayaks became hereditary. There were 200 such Amar Nayaks who became very powerful as they had their own armies, source of revenue, and maintained law and order themselves in their areas.
Many of them declared themselves independent especially after the central authority declined.
Unlike Chola dynasty, Grams did not enjoy similar level of autonomy. Under Cholas they could elect their executive bodies. In Vijayanagar Empire central authority had direct role in village administration.
Virupaksh Temple built by Chalukyas in Hampi but Vijayanagar rulers later also contributed to it, Vithal Swami Temple and Rama Swami Temple built by KrishnaDevaRaya
Krishna Deva Raya was great scholar of Sanskrit and Telugu. His work Amuktmalyada in Telugu reflect his grasp on telugu literature.
Srikrishnadevaraya Krishna Deva Raya’s reign is considered the golden age of Telugu literature. Eight poets known as Astadiggaja (eight elephants in the eight cardinal points such as North, South etc.) were part of his court. According to the Vaishnavite religion there are eight elephants in eight corners in space and hold the earth in its place. Similarly these eight poets were the eight pillars of his literary assembly. Who constituted Ashtadiggajas is not certain. But, it is popularly believed to include these : Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyala-raju Rama-Bhadrudu, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushanudu and Tenali Rama Krishna.
Among these eight poets Allasani Peddana is considered to be the greatest and is given the title of Andhra Kavita Pitamaha (the father of Telugu poetry). Manu-charitrama which was patronised to Sri Krishna Devaraya is his popular prabhanda work.
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan. He was a Persian merchant. He came to India at the age of forty two and joined the services of Bahmani kingdom. Slowly he became the chief minister due to his personal qualities. He divided the kingdom into 8 Atraf (provinces), each headed by a Governor
The Deccan sultanates were five dynasties of various ethnic backgrounds (Afghan, Persian, Turk, Mongol etc) that ruled late medieval kingdoms, namely, Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar in south-western India. The Deccan sultanates were located on the Deccan Plateau, between the Krishna River and the Vindhya Range. These kingdoms became independent during the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate. In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year. Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528. In 1510, Bijapur repulsed an invasion by the Portuguese against the city of Goa, but lost it later that year.
Bahmani Empire and Vijayanagar Empire had almost parallel existence. These two kingdoms fought for almost 200 years over three regions:
- Raichur Doab (Between Krishna and Tungabhadra)
- Area between Krisha and Godavari Delta
- Marathwada Region
Bijapur: Gol Gumbaj was a biggest dome in India built by Bijapur. It is the mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur. The tomb, located in Bijapur, Karnataka in India
Although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 when it was ruled by last Tuluva King Rama Raya, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota also called Battle of Bannihatti. After that battle, new weak dynasty, Aravidu, ruled Vijayanagar empire for almost a century.
Sangam Age
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/sangam-period-literature-administration-and-economic-condition-during-sangam-period/739
http://holisticthought.com/sangam-age-history-of-south-india/
http://peppertrail.com/inner.php?menu_id=18&sm1_id=54&index_id=3 Map of Chera(bow), Chola(tiger), Pandyas(fish)
Thursday, 23 April 2015
Paper 2 - History of India, National Movement, Society and Culture
Popular Movements of Uttarakhand
Syllabus: Popular Movements of Uttarakhand :- Coolie- Begar Movement,unrest against
Tehri State, Dola Palki Movement, Chipko Movement, Anti-Liquor Movement,
Saints and Social Reformers of Uttarakhand, Movement for separate State of
Uttarakhand : Its immediate and far reaching consequences, Religious places and
temples of Uttarakhand, important archaeological sites of Uttarakhand,
Uttarakhand's major social, cultural and religious, Fairs, Festivals and tours, Sites of
cultural significance, major songs and dances of Uttarakhand, musical instruments,
paintings, costumes and food habits, dialects, Prominent folk singers and theatre
artists of Uttarakhand, craft, industry and trade of Uttarakhand, Growth of Education
in Uttarakhand.
Saints and Social Reformers of Uttarakhand
Adi Shankara:
Adi Shankara early 8th century CE is a widely studied and influential Hindu philosopher and theologian from India who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta*.
His works in Sanskrit discuss the unity of the ātman and Nirguna Brahman "brahman without attributes".He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutras, Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. His works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads.
Shankara's publications critiqued of rituals-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism. He also explained the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self".
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mīmāṃsā school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist.
Note: *Advaita Vedanta - Advaita Vedanta is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta, an ancient Hindu tradition of scriptural exegesis and religious practice,and the best-known school of advaita, the nonduality of Atman and Brahman or the Absolute. It gives "a unifying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads", providing scriptural authority for the postulation of the nonduality of Atman and Brahman.
Advaita (not-two in Sanskrit) refers to the recognition that the true Self, Atman, which is pure consciousness, is the same as the highest Reality, Brahman, which is also pure consciousness. Followers seek liberation/release by acquiring vidyā (knowledge) of the identity of Atman and Brahman. Attaining this liberation takes a long preparation and training under the guidance of a guru. Advaita thought can also be found in non-orthodox Indian religious traditions, such as the tantric Nath tradition.
The principal, though not the first, exponent of the Advaita Vedanta-interpretation was Shankara Bhagavadpada in the 8th century, who systematised the works of preceding philosophers.Its teachings have influenced various sects of Hinduism.
The key source texts for all schools of Vedānta are the Prasthanatrayi, the canonical texts consisting of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras, of which they give a philosophical interpretation and elucidation.
Jyotirmath: Jyotirmath, also known as Joshimath is a city and a municipal board in Chamoli District in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. Located at a height of 6150 feet, it is gateway to several Himalayan mountain climbing expeditions, trekking trails and pilgrim centres like Badrinath. It is home to one of the four cardinal pīthas established by Adi Shankara.
Jyotirmath is the uttarāmnāya matha or northern monastery, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankara, the others being those at Shringeri, Puri and Dwaraka. Their heads are titled "Shankaracharya". According to the tradition initiated by Adi Shankara, this matha is in charge of the Atharvaveda. Jyotirmath is close to the pilgrimage town of Badrinath. This place can be a base station for travellers going to Guru Gobind Ghat or the Valley of Flowers National Park.
Shankaracharya Math: This is the math established by Adi Shankaracharya in North India. The Math is having temple of Badrinarayan and Rajrajeshwari Devi. It has a sacred cave where Adi Shankaracharya supposedly undertook tapasya
Syllabus: Popular Movements of Uttarakhand :- Coolie- Begar Movement,unrest against
Tehri State, Dola Palki Movement, Chipko Movement, Anti-Liquor Movement,
Saints and Social Reformers of Uttarakhand, Movement for separate State of
Uttarakhand : Its immediate and far reaching consequences, Religious places and
temples of Uttarakhand, important archaeological sites of Uttarakhand,
Uttarakhand's major social, cultural and religious, Fairs, Festivals and tours, Sites of
cultural significance, major songs and dances of Uttarakhand, musical instruments,
paintings, costumes and food habits, dialects, Prominent folk singers and theatre
artists of Uttarakhand, craft, industry and trade of Uttarakhand, Growth of Education
in Uttarakhand.
Saints and Social Reformers of Uttarakhand
Adi Shankara:
Adi Shankara early 8th century CE is a widely studied and influential Hindu philosopher and theologian from India who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta*.
His works in Sanskrit discuss the unity of the ātman and Nirguna Brahman "brahman without attributes".He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutras, Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. His works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads.
Shankara's publications critiqued of rituals-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism. He also explained the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self".
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mīmāṃsā school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist.
Note: *Advaita Vedanta - Advaita Vedanta is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta, an ancient Hindu tradition of scriptural exegesis and religious practice,and the best-known school of advaita, the nonduality of Atman and Brahman or the Absolute. It gives "a unifying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads", providing scriptural authority for the postulation of the nonduality of Atman and Brahman.
Advaita (not-two in Sanskrit) refers to the recognition that the true Self, Atman, which is pure consciousness, is the same as the highest Reality, Brahman, which is also pure consciousness. Followers seek liberation/release by acquiring vidyā (knowledge) of the identity of Atman and Brahman. Attaining this liberation takes a long preparation and training under the guidance of a guru. Advaita thought can also be found in non-orthodox Indian religious traditions, such as the tantric Nath tradition.
The principal, though not the first, exponent of the Advaita Vedanta-interpretation was Shankara Bhagavadpada in the 8th century, who systematised the works of preceding philosophers.Its teachings have influenced various sects of Hinduism.
The key source texts for all schools of Vedānta are the Prasthanatrayi, the canonical texts consisting of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras, of which they give a philosophical interpretation and elucidation.
Jyotirmath: Jyotirmath, also known as Joshimath is a city and a municipal board in Chamoli District in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. Located at a height of 6150 feet, it is gateway to several Himalayan mountain climbing expeditions, trekking trails and pilgrim centres like Badrinath. It is home to one of the four cardinal pīthas established by Adi Shankara.
Jyotirmath is the uttarāmnāya matha or northern monastery, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankara, the others being those at Shringeri, Puri and Dwaraka. Their heads are titled "Shankaracharya". According to the tradition initiated by Adi Shankara, this matha is in charge of the Atharvaveda. Jyotirmath is close to the pilgrimage town of Badrinath. This place can be a base station for travellers going to Guru Gobind Ghat or the Valley of Flowers National Park.
Shankaracharya Math: This is the math established by Adi Shankaracharya in North India. The Math is having temple of Badrinarayan and Rajrajeshwari Devi. It has a sacred cave where Adi Shankaracharya supposedly undertook tapasya
Sunday, 12 April 2015
Paper 2 - History of India, National Movement, Society and Culture
Freedom Movement in Uttarakhand
The British Rule
In the year 1816, the British defeated the King of Nepal and signed the ‘Treaty of Sugauli’ with him. As per the treaty, The King of Nepal gave up the previously annexed territories of Garhwal and Kumaun. These territories were brought under a single administrative unit called ‘Kumaun Province’ by the British. The Garhwal region was divided into two parts, the British Garhwal and the Tehri Garhwal State. Sudarshan Shah of the Panwar dynasty was reinstalled as the King of Tehri Garhwal.
G.W. Traill, an assistant commissioner, was sent to ‘Kumaun Province’ to bring in British authority. His tenure in came to an end in 1835. From 1836-1856, the ‘Kumaun Province’ was administered by Commissioner Batten. In 1839, the ‘Kumaun Province’ was divided into two districts of Garhwal and Kumaon, each under a senior assistant commissioner.
The Great Revolt of 1857 did not have any major impact and the region remained peaceful as the then Commissioner, Henry Ramsay enjoyed the respect and support of the people of Kumaun and Garhwal. All the passes into the hills and entrances to the valleys were manned. Small disturbances were curbed.
In January 1858, Kalu Mehra led a group of freedom fighters in the Kali Kumaun against the British rulers. He is still revered as the first freedom fighter of this region. Anand Singh Fartiyal and Bishan Singh Karayat were other prominent freedom fighters of that uprising.
The Beginnings of Indian Freedom Movement in Uttarakhand
In 1903 Hargovind Pant and Govind Vallabh Pant set up the “Happy Club” in Almora , which worked towards galvanizing the local youth towards the Indian Freedom Movement. A weekly newspaper “Gadwali” published from Dehradun brought about a surge of patriotism in the society. The Partition of Bengal announced in July 1905 by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon was also condemned by the people of Almora.
With the efforts of Barrister Mukundilal and Anusuya Prasad Bahuguna, The Indian National Congress started its offices in Uttarakhand in 1912. In 1913, ‘Almora Akhbar’ which was being published since 1871, came under the editorship of Pandit Badridutt Pandey and spread the spirit of nationalism across the length and breadth of the then ‘Kumaun Province’. In 1914, Mohan Joshi, Hem Chandra, Chiranjeelal and Badridutta Pandey established the Home Rule League.
‘Kumaun Parishad’ came to existence in 1916 to bring about a social, economic, cultural and political awakening amongst the people of this region and the national movement for freedom spread to the far corners of ‘Kumaun Province’.
On 14th August 1921, on the occasion of Makar Sankranti, 40,000 people gathered at Bageshwar and at the call of Pandit Badridutt Pandey, Hargovind Pant and Chiranjeelal , the registers containing names of Coolies (bonded labor for the British) were torn and thrown into the Saryu river. Mahatma Gandhi also visited Bageshwar in the same year and established the Swaraj-Ashram.
On 26th January 1930, the Tri Color was furled across Uttarakhand. In the year 1939, Congress called a mammoth political rally in Srinagar (Garhwal).
Indian National Army
The Indian National Army had almost 2,500 garhwali officers and soldiers in its ranks. Chandra Singh Negi was the Commander of the Officers Training School in Singapore. Lt. Col.Budhi Singh Rawat was the personal adjutant of Subhash Chandra Bose. Major Deb Singh Danu rendered services as the Commander of the personal guards' battalion of Subhash Chandra Bose. Major Padam Singh Negi Lt. Colonel Pitri Saran Raturi commanded the battalions of the INA.
Thousands and thousands of people from the sacred land of Uttarkhand, sacrificed their lives to bring the Indian Freedom Movement to fruition.
The British Rule
In the year 1816, the British defeated the King of Nepal and signed the ‘Treaty of Sugauli’ with him. As per the treaty, The King of Nepal gave up the previously annexed territories of Garhwal and Kumaun. These territories were brought under a single administrative unit called ‘Kumaun Province’ by the British. The Garhwal region was divided into two parts, the British Garhwal and the Tehri Garhwal State. Sudarshan Shah of the Panwar dynasty was reinstalled as the King of Tehri Garhwal.
G.W. Traill, an assistant commissioner, was sent to ‘Kumaun Province’ to bring in British authority. His tenure in came to an end in 1835. From 1836-1856, the ‘Kumaun Province’ was administered by Commissioner Batten. In 1839, the ‘Kumaun Province’ was divided into two districts of Garhwal and Kumaon, each under a senior assistant commissioner.
The Great Revolt of 1857 did not have any major impact and the region remained peaceful as the then Commissioner, Henry Ramsay enjoyed the respect and support of the people of Kumaun and Garhwal. All the passes into the hills and entrances to the valleys were manned. Small disturbances were curbed.
In January 1858, Kalu Mehra led a group of freedom fighters in the Kali Kumaun against the British rulers. He is still revered as the first freedom fighter of this region. Anand Singh Fartiyal and Bishan Singh Karayat were other prominent freedom fighters of that uprising.
The Beginnings of Indian Freedom Movement in Uttarakhand
In 1903 Hargovind Pant and Govind Vallabh Pant set up the “Happy Club” in Almora , which worked towards galvanizing the local youth towards the Indian Freedom Movement. A weekly newspaper “Gadwali” published from Dehradun brought about a surge of patriotism in the society. The Partition of Bengal announced in July 1905 by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon was also condemned by the people of Almora.
With the efforts of Barrister Mukundilal and Anusuya Prasad Bahuguna, The Indian National Congress started its offices in Uttarakhand in 1912. In 1913, ‘Almora Akhbar’ which was being published since 1871, came under the editorship of Pandit Badridutt Pandey and spread the spirit of nationalism across the length and breadth of the then ‘Kumaun Province’. In 1914, Mohan Joshi, Hem Chandra, Chiranjeelal and Badridutta Pandey established the Home Rule League.
‘Kumaun Parishad’ came to existence in 1916 to bring about a social, economic, cultural and political awakening amongst the people of this region and the national movement for freedom spread to the far corners of ‘Kumaun Province’.
On 14th August 1921, on the occasion of Makar Sankranti, 40,000 people gathered at Bageshwar and at the call of Pandit Badridutt Pandey, Hargovind Pant and Chiranjeelal , the registers containing names of Coolies (bonded labor for the British) were torn and thrown into the Saryu river. Mahatma Gandhi also visited Bageshwar in the same year and established the Swaraj-Ashram.
On 26th January 1930, the Tri Color was furled across Uttarakhand. In the year 1939, Congress called a mammoth political rally in Srinagar (Garhwal).
Indian National Army
The Indian National Army had almost 2,500 garhwali officers and soldiers in its ranks. Chandra Singh Negi was the Commander of the Officers Training School in Singapore. Lt. Col.Budhi Singh Rawat was the personal adjutant of Subhash Chandra Bose. Major Deb Singh Danu rendered services as the Commander of the personal guards' battalion of Subhash Chandra Bose. Major Padam Singh Negi Lt. Colonel Pitri Saran Raturi commanded the battalions of the INA.
Thousands and thousands of people from the sacred land of Uttarkhand, sacrificed their lives to bring the Indian Freedom Movement to fruition.
Paper 2 - History of India, National Movement, Society and Culture
Popular Movements of Uttarakhand
Coolie Begar and Forest Dissent:
According to the Regulations of Fort William, whenever the British officials toured the hills, it was regarded as the duty of the local people to arrange coolies for their luggage. This was known a Coolie Utar; it was compulsory and the status and the condition of the individual concerned were not kept in view. Not only for the officials but also for their vast entourage of servants and the British tourists, coolies had to be arranged without payment.. Then there was Coolie Burdayash and in this system, free ration had to be provided to the officials on tour, and the people were penalized if they failed to do so. According to Coolie Begar the hill people had to work for the British officials on tour without payment. For public works too, bonded labour was enforced during British times. There was a lot of resentment against these social maladies and ultimately the people succeeded in eradicating them through a mass movement in Bageshwar on 13th January 1921.
Coolie Begar : Under this system the hill people had to work for the British officials on tour without payment. According to the regulations of the Govt. of Fort Williams, Coolie Begar was the practice of pressing certain classes of the inhabitants of the towns and villages
under the denomination of begarees or of coolies for the purpose of carrying baggage or other loads from stage to stage or village to village.
Coolie Utar: When British Officials toured the hills, it was regarded as a duty of the local people to provide coolies for their luggage. This was known as Coolie Utar. Coolie Utar was compulsory, and the status and condition of the individual concerned was not kept in view (Almora Akhbar, 4th Aug. 1913).
Coolie Burdayash: According to this practice, free ration had to be supplied to the officials on tour, and the people were penalized if they failed to do so.
Another important aspect where the British did not act with prudence was the forest policy. The administration of forests in British Kumaon was beset with many complications from the very beginning of the inception of the so-called scientific or organized control and management. The local people felt that their rights were being encroached upon since the authorities clamped restrictions on the promiscuous felling of trees and grazing of animals. The inhabitants of the hills relied mostly on forests and forest produce. Before the British took up the management of the forests, the people had absolute rights over them. The British administration on the one hand promoted extension of agriculture and the consequent growth of population and on the other access to most of the forests was restricted to ensure commercial production especially after 1920. This must have resulted in a drastic reduction in the forest support base for agriculture on unit area basis. It was thus obvious that inroads on indefeasible and immemorial rights through the forest policy created a general sense of insecurity and resentment amongst the people. Further no information was sought into the requirements of different villages before launching the forest policy. It was only on papers that the authorities were determining the nature and extent of rights alleged to exist in favour of any person or any forest produce of the same.
Later, the British introduced a type of fire protection that involved prescribed burning to reduce drastically the danger of accidental or incendiary fires. The unrestricted burning of pastures and ground vegetation was traditional in the hills, for it promoted the growth of grass and also removed the accumulated chir pine needles which made cattle movement hazardous. Bharat Ratna Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant, who later became Home Minister of India in January 1955, commented on the restrictions to burning as early as 1921, “ This is a source of widespread hardship and the opinion of all classes of people seem to be unanimous on this point.”
Together with this, the people considered the possession and ownership by the government of barren and `benap', unmeasured land, not only as improper and unlawful, but also as usurpation of their forest rights. In 1907, a mass meeting was held in this connection at Almora under the president ship of Major General Wheeler, but nothing fruitful could be achieved. Thus when the resentment reached a critical level, the people stooped down to burning of forests. Incendiary fires in Kumaon affected about 840,000 hectares of forest in British Kumaon. Owing to incendiarism, 24,300 ha of forest were burnt around Naini Tal in 1916. Five years later another outburst caused no less than 317 incendiary fires in Kumaon Division, affecting more than 82,880 ha of forest. It ruined 11, 50,000 of resin channels and 24, 37,500 kg. of resin. It also destroyed over 1, 00,000 flourishing young trees and young crops resulting from 25 years of patient tending.
In 1916, the Kumaon Parishad was formed to deal with the forest problems of Kumaon. Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant, who was appointed the Home Minister of India, worked as its General Secretary. He was later elected to preside over the last annual session of this association, which was held in December in Almora in 1921. It was he who first published a report voicing the popular demands of the inhabitants of Kumaon and Garhwal regarding their rights and concessions in the forests. The government put up posters in public places, stating, “ Kumaonis the forests are yours.” Telegrams were sent to newspapers like the Pioneer, the Leader and the Indian Telegraph regarding the damage done to forests as well as animals and birds owing to incendiarism in Kumaon Circle. Arrests were also made and the government held the leaders of the Kumaon Parishad responsible for this act of incendiarism in Kumaon Circle. The government then appointed a committee in 1921 to enquire into the grievances of the people of Kumaon and Garhwal regarding their rights and concessions in the forests. The committee was known as The Kumaon Grievance's Committee. The members of the committee toured the region extensively and in all some 5040 witnesses were examined either in person or by representatives from all sections of the society. The report of the committee was submitted in 1926 and was known as the `Forest Grievances Committee's 'Report'. It recommended the formation of Van Pachayats and concomitantly they were established in British Kumaon. These Van Panchayats played a significant role in the freedom struggle.
The next wave of forest unrest coincided with Civil Disobedience Movement. Again there were incendiary fires and during 1931, Kumaon was the centre of self destructive incendiarism, the Reserved Forest being burnt 157 times. In 1938 the government asked the Grievances Committee to reconsider the rights and concessions of the village people in the forests. The report submitted by them is known as An Investigation into the Villagers Rights in the Reserved Forests of Kumaon. Since the promulgation of these orders, there was no change in the British Forest Policy up to 1947. But a legacy of suspicion and resistance was created between the people and the authorities, which even Indpendence in 1947 could not entirely cure.
Coolie Begar and the forest policy were the most important causes of resentment against the British. But gradually the people associated themselves with the main stream of national consciousness. Nan Saheb Pehwas sojourn in Uttarkashi in anonymity is a well known fact. Gandhiji, Swami Vivekanand, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Annie Besant, Madan Mohan Malviya, Purshottam Das Tandon and Dr. Bhagwan Das etc visits to Uttarakhand, the vernacular press and the exposure of local Congress leaders like Badri Dutt Pande, Mohan Singh Mehta, Har Govind Pant, Indra Singh Nayal, Man Mohan Singh Mehta, Khushi Ram, Mohan Lal Sah etc in the Congress meetings facilitated in disseminating consciousness amidst the masses and the leaders. Further the people from this region were also influenced by the revolutionary movements during 1929 to 1933. Bhawani Singh, Indra Singh and Bachhu Lal all three from Garhwal took active part in all the revolutionary activities of Chandra Shekhar Azad and his associates. He spent some time in Dogadda to impart pistol training to young revolutionaries. The famous revolutionary Ras Bihari Bose stayed incognito in Uttarakhand and worked in the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun to disseminate his philosophy.
Another incident, which deserves mention is when Chandra Singh Garhwali and his companions from 2/18 Royal Garhwal Rifles refused to fire on the followers of Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan in Peshwar on 23rd April 1930. At the court martial proceedings the Garhwalis said, “We will not shoot our unarmed brethren…. You may blow us from the guns if you like.” Frank Moraes, in the book Witness to an Era has mentioned that the incident shook the British. General Mohan Singh of the India National Army (INA) fame has observed that the heroic example of Chandra Singh Garhwali inspired the Garhwalis to join the INA. On September 1942 two battalions of the Royal Garhwal Rifles, 2/18 and 5/ 18 joined the INA. There were 2,500 Garhwalis in these two battalions out of which 600 were killed in action. Philip Mason, the British Defence Secretary was of the view that the Garhwali soldiers were infused with a spirit of nationalism and they were intrepid soldiers.
The Garhwalis held some very important positions in the INA. Lt. Colonel. Chandra Singh Negi was appointed as the Commander of the Officers Training School in Singapore. Major Deb Singh Danu was deployed as Commander of the personal guards' battalion of Subhash Chandra Bose. Lt. Col.Budhi Singh Rawat held the esteemed position as personal adjutant of Subhash Chandra Bose. Major Padam Singh Negi was commanding the third battalion and Lt. Colonel Pitri Saran Raturi the first battalion of the Subhash Regiment. For his gallantry and outstanding qualities of leadership, Raturi was decorated with the Sardar-e-Jung Award by Netaji Subhash himself. An intrepid soldier from Jaunsar Babar who showed exemplary courage in the INA was Kesari Chand. He was arrested by the British and as prisoner of war was hanged in Delhi on 3rd May 1945 at the age of 24 years and 6 months. To commemorate his sacrifice and intrepidity, Shaheed Veer Kesari Chand Mela is celebrated in Ramtal in Chakrata Tahsil every year during April-May in Navratra.
Unrest against Tehri State
Whatever happened in British Kumaon its repercussions were felt in Tehri Garhwal State and there too the kings not unlike their counterparts in British Kumaon failed in redressing the problems of forestry and Coolie Begar. The resentment towards forest management was manifested in the Rawain incident of 30th May, 1930 in which according to the Information Department more than 200 people died. The Rawain Massacre had a deep effect on the people of British Kumaon. A meeting was held there to protest against the brutalities and Diwan Chakra Dhar Jayal of Tehri Garhwal State who was responsible for this bloodshed was nicknamed as 'Khuni'. The incident shocked the people so much that even today songs are sung in Garhwal to commemorate this tragedy.
In Tehri Garhwal State, in the initial stages the uprisings were against feudalism and the forest policy, but soon the echoes of the movement in Kumaon resonated through the State and the energies of the people were channelized in the right direction. By 1945 they started demanding liberation not only from the fetters of feudalism but also from the shackles of alien yoke. Thus with the Independence of the country, an interim government was established in Tehri Garhwal State in February 1948. This government did not function for more than one year and on August 1, 1949 a proclamation was made by the India Government to integrate Tehri Garhwal State with Uttar Pradesh.
Tehri Garhwal or Garhwal Kingdom, was a princely state, ruled by the Parmar (Shah) dynasty. Later, it became a part of the Punjab Hill States Agency of British India, which consists of the present day Tehri Garhwal District and most of the Uttarkashi district. In 1901, it had an area of about 4,180 square miles (10,800 km2) and a population of 268,885. The ruler was given the title of raja, but after 1913, he was honoured with the title of maharaja. The ruler was entitled to salutes of 11 guns and had a privy purse of rupees 300,000. The princely state acceded to India on 1 August 1949.
King Sudarshan Shah established his capital at Tehri town and afterwards his successors Pratap Shah, Kirti Shah and Narendra Shah established their capital at Pratap Nagar, Kirtinagar and Narendra Nagar, respectively. Their dynasty ruled over this region from 1815 to 1949. During the Quit India Movement people of this region actively worked for the independence of the country. Ultimately, when the country was declared independent in 1947, the inhabitants of Tehri Riyasat (Tehri State) started their movement to free themselves from the clutches of the maharaja.
Dola-Palki Movement
Census was one way of securing status. Various other practices were
adopted to ensure mobility. Adopting the customs and the way of life of a higher
caste was a common practice. Sanwal argues that the Kumaun Rajput Parishad
which was dominated by the Khasas exhorted members to emulate higher castes.
They were asked to follow the orthodox rituals to justify claims to higher status.
Turner found that Khasas were putting onjaneo and were raising themselves to
the rank of Rajputs. Walton wrote:
The Khasiyas ought to be distinguished from the pure Rajputs by his not wearing Janeo: but now that there is no danger of punishment for its unjustified assumption most Khasiyas have adopted the thread.
Through education, changed social practices, many Khasas intermarried
among themselves and developed a closed social group. In the course of time they
merged with Rajputs. The number ofK.hasasjoining Rajput rank increased over
the decades.
Doms also struggled to improve their status. Artisan Doms who could
improve their economic condition claimed a higher status among Doms. They
joined the Arya Samaj and became Arya, adopted janeo and got purified. Lala
Lajpat Rai in 1913 visited Almora and in Sunkiyan village gave Janeo and dvij
status to 600 untouchables. A temple was opened for untouchables in
Almora. There was a Dola-palki movement by the Doms. During the marriage
of Doms the bridegrooms and brides were not allowed by the higher castes to use
dola and palki (palki was used to carry the bridegroom and dola the bride. Both
dola and palki were carried by 2 to 4 persons on their shoulders) and were instead
to walk on foot. When Doms asserted their right to use dola-palki there was often violence. The Arya Samaj played an important role in the movement. Doms
also asserted that they should be called Shilpkar.Tamtas (copper smiths) who
became rich took to priestly function amongst shilpkars.The Kumaun Shilpkar
Sabha and the Garhwal Shilpkar Sabha spearheaded the movement for status
mobility.
While Khasas could merge with Rajputs, Doms could not do so. They were
considered impure, and there were no middle caste groups in the hills with whom
they could identity. Thus their struggle did not result in mobility in caste
hierarchy. An internal structure of hierarchy emerged within the Doms. When
Tamtas emerged as leaders of the Kumaun Shilpkar Sabha, Sanwal argues, many
did not accept their leadership. Only a few Doms could benefit in terms of
their improved position. For many the situation remained the same.
Chipko Movement
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipko_movement
Anti-Liquor Movement
Alcohol abuse has been a social evil in hills and women are worst affected due
to it. They are beaten, abused and sometimes even murdered for objecting men to drink.Every now and then, heart-rending stories of death caused due to liquor directly or indirectly, keep appearing in the print media. The following slogan that women have coined clearly indicates at the ill effects of liquor on women- "Sharab ki yah kaisi shan, Aurat ki leti hai jaan" (What kind of splendour of liquor is it that takes a
woman's life?). The women realize that the liquor kills men only once but it kills
women in stages as they have to bear the brunt of this poison throughout life (Pandey,1994).
Alcohol with a potential to spoil the whole society- its present and future- has
become a matter of enormous concern for the hill women. Looking at its history in
Uttaranchal, one may only wonder that despite being traditionally associated with the
Shauka, Johari, Jaad, Marchha, Jaunsari, Tharu and Buksa tribes of the region, liquor
was not prevalent among the common masses till 1815, the year of the beginning of
British occupation of the region (Tewari, 1998). Due to the. British policies aimed at
earning maximum revenue, its production and sale could neither be stopped nor
controlled; and in the later years it took an expansive scenario. The total revenue earned from liquor, alcoholic syrups and smack in Kumaun for the year 1822-23 was rupees
534. Later it increased rapidly to rupees 1300, 18,673 and 29,013 for the year 1837,
1872 and 1882 respectively (Nainital Samachar, Pachhis saal ka safar, 2003; p.l 09-
114). Even after independence, it continued to rise. With the Congress' renouncement
of its strongly proposed policy of imposing total ban on alcohol due to its temptation to collect higher amounts of revenue, the production and sale of alcohol increased in the region. As the problem worsened, the opposing reactions of the local communities also increased. The first powerful reaction was witnessed after 1947. However, lt took an organized shape around 1960. Although the 1962 and 1965 wars slowed down the movement but it did not die out. The movement continued in an organized form in Tehri, Pauri, Almora and Pithoragarh under the leadership of the Sarvodaya activists resulting in closing down of several breweries. Relenting to the mass pressure, the government in April 1972 announced total ban on liquor in five border distncts Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Tehri and Pauri (Tewari, 1998b).
The anti-liquor campaigns received momentum only in 1984 with the initiation
of 'Nasha nahi, Rojgar do' (Not alcohol, give us employment) movement under the
leadership of Uttarakhand Sangharsh Vahini. Beginning formally on Feb. 2, 1994,
around 20,000 people participated in various demonstrations held in Chaukhutia
(Almora) till the end of the month. The movement spread rapidly to Maasi, Bhikyasain,
Syaalde, Dwarahaat, Gagaas, Someshwar, Tarikhet, Kaphara, Garuda and Baijnaathfinally
crossing the borders of Almora district. Centres of sura-alcohol were raided at
several places, alcohol worth crores was caught by interruptional checking of vehicles plying on roads, people involved in this scandalous business were punishes by painting their faces black; demonstrations, street-plays and meetings were held to create awareness among masses and to mobilize them for eradicating liquor from society. The liquor mafia was afraid by this enthusiasm of people. As a result, there was an unusual fall in the consumption of liquor in the region. Women got a new lease of life and could go out freely and fearlessly. This movement was followed by the announcement of a partial ban on liquor but the demand for complete ban continued (Nainital Samachar, Pachhis saal ka safar, 2003; p.109-114).
This movement, in 1990, transformed into the anti-reservation movement,
which commenced in the area with the announcement of 27% reservation to the OBCs
in government jobs by the V. P. Singh Government (Nainital Samachar, 30 Sep. 1990).
Along with this the people intensified their demand for a separate state that would be
completely free of alcohol. The activists started breaking down the liquor outlets in
various parts of Kumaun and Garhwal. The fact needs to be emphasized that throughout
this movement, the women had been playing an active role. With the expansion of
independent women's organizations (Mahila Sangathans, Mahila Mangal Dals), this
movement also spread. Moreover, in the contemporary context, the anti liquor issues
are being outstandingly taken up by the women's organizations.
In tune with the 'Nasha nahi, Rojgar do' movement of 1984, the women of
Bhatelia, Nainital, started a 'Sharab nahi, Pani do' (Not alcohol, give us water)
program in 1994 (Pandey, 1994 ). When most of the people supported the installation of
the liquor vends, the women carried on their 'Dharna' and demanded 'water',
'employment' and 'health' in place of liquor by raising slogans- "Sharab nahi, Pani
do", "Nasha nahi, Rojgar do" and "Sharab nahi, Swasthya chahiye ". The women of
Harsill too, raided liquor outlets and burnt 'Holi' of the liquor that they had collected
through this move (Rawat, 1994). In spite of the numerous anti-alcohol campaigns
being taken up by the public in the entire Kumaun region, the administration
successfully conducted the auction of liquor vends in 1995-96, under heavy police
protection. Still, under the leadership of various Mahila Sangathans, the anti-alcohol
campaign persisted. In their various meetings, rallies and protest demonstrations, the
women activists prominently used 'Dhol' and 'Damau' (local musical instruments),
songs and folklores for sensitizing and mobilizing the masses. "Larna hai bhai ye to
lambi larai hai, jeetne ke waste mas hal jo jalai hai.. ..... " (Friends we have to fight, this
is a long battle; we have lit the lamp for winning this battle) And "jainta ek din to alo u
din yo duni mein ... ... .... jainta koi na koi to lyalo u din yo duni mein" (A day will
definitely come ....... someone will bring that fateful day on this earth) are two most
popular songs of the movement. The Mahila Sangathans, in a number of places
successfully used the itching grass (Sinna or Bichchhoo Ghas) also as their weapon in the anti-alcohol campaign. Recently, at several places, women groups/organizations have started imposing fines. In Piplati village of district Champawat, they imposed a fine of rupees 500/ on each person found creating disturbance in the village in a drunken state (Amar Ujala, Mar. 27, 2004). The women of Srunkot village near Munsyari (Pithoragarh) recovered rupees 52,500/ from 35 persons involved in
manufacturing illegal country liquor by imposing a fine of rupees 1500/ on each of
them (Amar Ujala, Apr. 17, 2004).
Despite myriad anti-alcohol campaigns, the government has never taken the
issue seriously and besides played double games. New outlets were constantly openedboth in the Kumaun and Garhwal Region. To one's dismay, it opened 263 country andEnglish liquor outlets in total in Kumaun during the year 1995-96 and collected a totalrevenue of rupees 45.83 crore from these outlets (Tewari, 1998a). The dreams of thepeople of Uttaranchal shattered when alcohol started reaching even to the remotevillages under the excise policy of the new government immediately after the formationof Uttaranchal State on November 9, 2000. Seeing no end to their plight, the women areprotesting against government's excise policy at many places 'in the state. Moved by thenegative effects of liquor, women collectives- Women Defence Committees, Village Defence Committees took various initiatives i.e. organized Dharna, Gherao sessions, Chakka .Jam, rallies, protest demonstrations, processions, debates and discussions, meetings, burning the effigy of ministers and contractors, social boycott of MLAs and MLCs, sticking notices agains~ sale and consumption of liquor and proposing boycott of the forthcoming election if the flow of liquor to the region did not stop (Negi, 2001 ). Throughout their struggle, the women collectively have demanded developmental
initiatives from the government with a complete ban on alcohol. They raised slogans
such as- "Nahi chahiye hamein sharab, Hamein chahiye sahi vikas" (we do not need
liquor, we need positive development) and "Pakki hum bikne nahi denge, Kachchi hum
chaine nahi denge" (neither we will allow the sale of legal wine, nor the consumption
of spurious country liquor) (Joshi, 2001 ).
This shows that the women of Uttaranchal hills have not acted as victims. They
have, instead, prepared themselves for fighting bigger battles. It is perhaps their life
circumstances that have made them fearless and expressive to a large extent. Besides being in the forefront in the nationalist Freedom Movement, they have played an activist role in several state level movements too, such as, the 'Chipko' (cling)
movement in 1973-74 to protect trees (Bhatt, 1992), 'Nasha nahi, Rojgar do' (give us
employment, not wine) movement in 1984 against liquor~ and 'Uttarakhand' movement
in 1994 to get a separate state for the hill people (Nainital Samachar: Pachhis Saal Ka
Safar, 2003), and the 'Maiti Andolan' for replenishing the woods by planting new trees
though 'Maill Sangathan' ('Maiti' is derived from a Kumauni word 'mait' which
means maternal home) formed in 1996 (Martoliya, 1997; Bisht, 1998). Thus, with the
power of an indomitable will and courage in the face of innumerable hardships, these
women have participated in almost all the mass movements in Uttaranchal with
incredible vigour and ardour (Sah, 2000).
Contrary to them, the so called male revolutionaries of Uttaranchal have always
shown double standards when it comes to banning liquor because they can not oppose it when they are not drunk. They talk of fighting against the 'system', but not the 'culture' (habit and behaviour of drinking) of liquor (Upadhhyaya, 1999). Women have demonstrated courage and guts both to fight not only against the "culture" but also the "'system" of liquor. It is the united women's power organized under Mahila Mangal Dal, Mahila Samooh, Mahila Morcha, Mahila Jagriti Manch or any other name that has succeeded in banning liquor in a number of villages in Uttaranchal hills, including Chhana and Bhurmuni- two of the four villages selected for the study.
Coolie Begar and Forest Dissent:
According to the Regulations of Fort William, whenever the British officials toured the hills, it was regarded as the duty of the local people to arrange coolies for their luggage. This was known a Coolie Utar; it was compulsory and the status and the condition of the individual concerned were not kept in view. Not only for the officials but also for their vast entourage of servants and the British tourists, coolies had to be arranged without payment.. Then there was Coolie Burdayash and in this system, free ration had to be provided to the officials on tour, and the people were penalized if they failed to do so. According to Coolie Begar the hill people had to work for the British officials on tour without payment. For public works too, bonded labour was enforced during British times. There was a lot of resentment against these social maladies and ultimately the people succeeded in eradicating them through a mass movement in Bageshwar on 13th January 1921.
Coolie Begar : Under this system the hill people had to work for the British officials on tour without payment. According to the regulations of the Govt. of Fort Williams, Coolie Begar was the practice of pressing certain classes of the inhabitants of the towns and villages
under the denomination of begarees or of coolies for the purpose of carrying baggage or other loads from stage to stage or village to village.
Coolie Utar: When British Officials toured the hills, it was regarded as a duty of the local people to provide coolies for their luggage. This was known as Coolie Utar. Coolie Utar was compulsory, and the status and condition of the individual concerned was not kept in view (Almora Akhbar, 4th Aug. 1913).
Coolie Burdayash: According to this practice, free ration had to be supplied to the officials on tour, and the people were penalized if they failed to do so.
Another important aspect where the British did not act with prudence was the forest policy. The administration of forests in British Kumaon was beset with many complications from the very beginning of the inception of the so-called scientific or organized control and management. The local people felt that their rights were being encroached upon since the authorities clamped restrictions on the promiscuous felling of trees and grazing of animals. The inhabitants of the hills relied mostly on forests and forest produce. Before the British took up the management of the forests, the people had absolute rights over them. The British administration on the one hand promoted extension of agriculture and the consequent growth of population and on the other access to most of the forests was restricted to ensure commercial production especially after 1920. This must have resulted in a drastic reduction in the forest support base for agriculture on unit area basis. It was thus obvious that inroads on indefeasible and immemorial rights through the forest policy created a general sense of insecurity and resentment amongst the people. Further no information was sought into the requirements of different villages before launching the forest policy. It was only on papers that the authorities were determining the nature and extent of rights alleged to exist in favour of any person or any forest produce of the same.
Later, the British introduced a type of fire protection that involved prescribed burning to reduce drastically the danger of accidental or incendiary fires. The unrestricted burning of pastures and ground vegetation was traditional in the hills, for it promoted the growth of grass and also removed the accumulated chir pine needles which made cattle movement hazardous. Bharat Ratna Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant, who later became Home Minister of India in January 1955, commented on the restrictions to burning as early as 1921, “ This is a source of widespread hardship and the opinion of all classes of people seem to be unanimous on this point.”
Together with this, the people considered the possession and ownership by the government of barren and `benap', unmeasured land, not only as improper and unlawful, but also as usurpation of their forest rights. In 1907, a mass meeting was held in this connection at Almora under the president ship of Major General Wheeler, but nothing fruitful could be achieved. Thus when the resentment reached a critical level, the people stooped down to burning of forests. Incendiary fires in Kumaon affected about 840,000 hectares of forest in British Kumaon. Owing to incendiarism, 24,300 ha of forest were burnt around Naini Tal in 1916. Five years later another outburst caused no less than 317 incendiary fires in Kumaon Division, affecting more than 82,880 ha of forest. It ruined 11, 50,000 of resin channels and 24, 37,500 kg. of resin. It also destroyed over 1, 00,000 flourishing young trees and young crops resulting from 25 years of patient tending.
In 1916, the Kumaon Parishad was formed to deal with the forest problems of Kumaon. Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant, who was appointed the Home Minister of India, worked as its General Secretary. He was later elected to preside over the last annual session of this association, which was held in December in Almora in 1921. It was he who first published a report voicing the popular demands of the inhabitants of Kumaon and Garhwal regarding their rights and concessions in the forests. The government put up posters in public places, stating, “ Kumaonis the forests are yours.” Telegrams were sent to newspapers like the Pioneer, the Leader and the Indian Telegraph regarding the damage done to forests as well as animals and birds owing to incendiarism in Kumaon Circle. Arrests were also made and the government held the leaders of the Kumaon Parishad responsible for this act of incendiarism in Kumaon Circle. The government then appointed a committee in 1921 to enquire into the grievances of the people of Kumaon and Garhwal regarding their rights and concessions in the forests. The committee was known as The Kumaon Grievance's Committee. The members of the committee toured the region extensively and in all some 5040 witnesses were examined either in person or by representatives from all sections of the society. The report of the committee was submitted in 1926 and was known as the `Forest Grievances Committee's 'Report'. It recommended the formation of Van Pachayats and concomitantly they were established in British Kumaon. These Van Panchayats played a significant role in the freedom struggle.
The next wave of forest unrest coincided with Civil Disobedience Movement. Again there were incendiary fires and during 1931, Kumaon was the centre of self destructive incendiarism, the Reserved Forest being burnt 157 times. In 1938 the government asked the Grievances Committee to reconsider the rights and concessions of the village people in the forests. The report submitted by them is known as An Investigation into the Villagers Rights in the Reserved Forests of Kumaon. Since the promulgation of these orders, there was no change in the British Forest Policy up to 1947. But a legacy of suspicion and resistance was created between the people and the authorities, which even Indpendence in 1947 could not entirely cure.
Coolie Begar and the forest policy were the most important causes of resentment against the British. But gradually the people associated themselves with the main stream of national consciousness. Nan Saheb Pehwas sojourn in Uttarkashi in anonymity is a well known fact. Gandhiji, Swami Vivekanand, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Annie Besant, Madan Mohan Malviya, Purshottam Das Tandon and Dr. Bhagwan Das etc visits to Uttarakhand, the vernacular press and the exposure of local Congress leaders like Badri Dutt Pande, Mohan Singh Mehta, Har Govind Pant, Indra Singh Nayal, Man Mohan Singh Mehta, Khushi Ram, Mohan Lal Sah etc in the Congress meetings facilitated in disseminating consciousness amidst the masses and the leaders. Further the people from this region were also influenced by the revolutionary movements during 1929 to 1933. Bhawani Singh, Indra Singh and Bachhu Lal all three from Garhwal took active part in all the revolutionary activities of Chandra Shekhar Azad and his associates. He spent some time in Dogadda to impart pistol training to young revolutionaries. The famous revolutionary Ras Bihari Bose stayed incognito in Uttarakhand and worked in the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun to disseminate his philosophy.
Another incident, which deserves mention is when Chandra Singh Garhwali and his companions from 2/18 Royal Garhwal Rifles refused to fire on the followers of Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan in Peshwar on 23rd April 1930. At the court martial proceedings the Garhwalis said, “We will not shoot our unarmed brethren…. You may blow us from the guns if you like.” Frank Moraes, in the book Witness to an Era has mentioned that the incident shook the British. General Mohan Singh of the India National Army (INA) fame has observed that the heroic example of Chandra Singh Garhwali inspired the Garhwalis to join the INA. On September 1942 two battalions of the Royal Garhwal Rifles, 2/18 and 5/ 18 joined the INA. There were 2,500 Garhwalis in these two battalions out of which 600 were killed in action. Philip Mason, the British Defence Secretary was of the view that the Garhwali soldiers were infused with a spirit of nationalism and they were intrepid soldiers.
The Garhwalis held some very important positions in the INA. Lt. Colonel. Chandra Singh Negi was appointed as the Commander of the Officers Training School in Singapore. Major Deb Singh Danu was deployed as Commander of the personal guards' battalion of Subhash Chandra Bose. Lt. Col.Budhi Singh Rawat held the esteemed position as personal adjutant of Subhash Chandra Bose. Major Padam Singh Negi was commanding the third battalion and Lt. Colonel Pitri Saran Raturi the first battalion of the Subhash Regiment. For his gallantry and outstanding qualities of leadership, Raturi was decorated with the Sardar-e-Jung Award by Netaji Subhash himself. An intrepid soldier from Jaunsar Babar who showed exemplary courage in the INA was Kesari Chand. He was arrested by the British and as prisoner of war was hanged in Delhi on 3rd May 1945 at the age of 24 years and 6 months. To commemorate his sacrifice and intrepidity, Shaheed Veer Kesari Chand Mela is celebrated in Ramtal in Chakrata Tahsil every year during April-May in Navratra.
Unrest against Tehri State
Whatever happened in British Kumaon its repercussions were felt in Tehri Garhwal State and there too the kings not unlike their counterparts in British Kumaon failed in redressing the problems of forestry and Coolie Begar. The resentment towards forest management was manifested in the Rawain incident of 30th May, 1930 in which according to the Information Department more than 200 people died. The Rawain Massacre had a deep effect on the people of British Kumaon. A meeting was held there to protest against the brutalities and Diwan Chakra Dhar Jayal of Tehri Garhwal State who was responsible for this bloodshed was nicknamed as 'Khuni'. The incident shocked the people so much that even today songs are sung in Garhwal to commemorate this tragedy.
In Tehri Garhwal State, in the initial stages the uprisings were against feudalism and the forest policy, but soon the echoes of the movement in Kumaon resonated through the State and the energies of the people were channelized in the right direction. By 1945 they started demanding liberation not only from the fetters of feudalism but also from the shackles of alien yoke. Thus with the Independence of the country, an interim government was established in Tehri Garhwal State in February 1948. This government did not function for more than one year and on August 1, 1949 a proclamation was made by the India Government to integrate Tehri Garhwal State with Uttar Pradesh.
Tehri Garhwal or Garhwal Kingdom, was a princely state, ruled by the Parmar (Shah) dynasty. Later, it became a part of the Punjab Hill States Agency of British India, which consists of the present day Tehri Garhwal District and most of the Uttarkashi district. In 1901, it had an area of about 4,180 square miles (10,800 km2) and a population of 268,885. The ruler was given the title of raja, but after 1913, he was honoured with the title of maharaja. The ruler was entitled to salutes of 11 guns and had a privy purse of rupees 300,000. The princely state acceded to India on 1 August 1949.
King Sudarshan Shah established his capital at Tehri town and afterwards his successors Pratap Shah, Kirti Shah and Narendra Shah established their capital at Pratap Nagar, Kirtinagar and Narendra Nagar, respectively. Their dynasty ruled over this region from 1815 to 1949. During the Quit India Movement people of this region actively worked for the independence of the country. Ultimately, when the country was declared independent in 1947, the inhabitants of Tehri Riyasat (Tehri State) started their movement to free themselves from the clutches of the maharaja.
Dola-Palki Movement
Census was one way of securing status. Various other practices were
adopted to ensure mobility. Adopting the customs and the way of life of a higher
caste was a common practice. Sanwal argues that the Kumaun Rajput Parishad
which was dominated by the Khasas exhorted members to emulate higher castes.
They were asked to follow the orthodox rituals to justify claims to higher status.
Turner found that Khasas were putting onjaneo and were raising themselves to
the rank of Rajputs. Walton wrote:
The Khasiyas ought to be distinguished from the pure Rajputs by his not wearing Janeo: but now that there is no danger of punishment for its unjustified assumption most Khasiyas have adopted the thread.
Through education, changed social practices, many Khasas intermarried
among themselves and developed a closed social group. In the course of time they
merged with Rajputs. The number ofK.hasasjoining Rajput rank increased over
the decades.
Doms also struggled to improve their status. Artisan Doms who could
improve their economic condition claimed a higher status among Doms. They
joined the Arya Samaj and became Arya, adopted janeo and got purified. Lala
Lajpat Rai in 1913 visited Almora and in Sunkiyan village gave Janeo and dvij
status to 600 untouchables. A temple was opened for untouchables in
Almora. There was a Dola-palki movement by the Doms. During the marriage
of Doms the bridegrooms and brides were not allowed by the higher castes to use
dola and palki (palki was used to carry the bridegroom and dola the bride. Both
dola and palki were carried by 2 to 4 persons on their shoulders) and were instead
to walk on foot. When Doms asserted their right to use dola-palki there was often violence. The Arya Samaj played an important role in the movement. Doms
also asserted that they should be called Shilpkar.Tamtas (copper smiths) who
became rich took to priestly function amongst shilpkars.The Kumaun Shilpkar
Sabha and the Garhwal Shilpkar Sabha spearheaded the movement for status
mobility.
While Khasas could merge with Rajputs, Doms could not do so. They were
considered impure, and there were no middle caste groups in the hills with whom
they could identity. Thus their struggle did not result in mobility in caste
hierarchy. An internal structure of hierarchy emerged within the Doms. When
Tamtas emerged as leaders of the Kumaun Shilpkar Sabha, Sanwal argues, many
did not accept their leadership. Only a few Doms could benefit in terms of
their improved position. For many the situation remained the same.
Chipko Movement
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipko_movement
Anti-Liquor Movement
Alcohol abuse has been a social evil in hills and women are worst affected due
to it. They are beaten, abused and sometimes even murdered for objecting men to drink.Every now and then, heart-rending stories of death caused due to liquor directly or indirectly, keep appearing in the print media. The following slogan that women have coined clearly indicates at the ill effects of liquor on women- "Sharab ki yah kaisi shan, Aurat ki leti hai jaan" (What kind of splendour of liquor is it that takes a
woman's life?). The women realize that the liquor kills men only once but it kills
women in stages as they have to bear the brunt of this poison throughout life (Pandey,1994).
Alcohol with a potential to spoil the whole society- its present and future- has
become a matter of enormous concern for the hill women. Looking at its history in
Uttaranchal, one may only wonder that despite being traditionally associated with the
Shauka, Johari, Jaad, Marchha, Jaunsari, Tharu and Buksa tribes of the region, liquor
was not prevalent among the common masses till 1815, the year of the beginning of
British occupation of the region (Tewari, 1998). Due to the. British policies aimed at
earning maximum revenue, its production and sale could neither be stopped nor
controlled; and in the later years it took an expansive scenario. The total revenue earned from liquor, alcoholic syrups and smack in Kumaun for the year 1822-23 was rupees
534. Later it increased rapidly to rupees 1300, 18,673 and 29,013 for the year 1837,
1872 and 1882 respectively (Nainital Samachar, Pachhis saal ka safar, 2003; p.l 09-
114). Even after independence, it continued to rise. With the Congress' renouncement
of its strongly proposed policy of imposing total ban on alcohol due to its temptation to collect higher amounts of revenue, the production and sale of alcohol increased in the region. As the problem worsened, the opposing reactions of the local communities also increased. The first powerful reaction was witnessed after 1947. However, lt took an organized shape around 1960. Although the 1962 and 1965 wars slowed down the movement but it did not die out. The movement continued in an organized form in Tehri, Pauri, Almora and Pithoragarh under the leadership of the Sarvodaya activists resulting in closing down of several breweries. Relenting to the mass pressure, the government in April 1972 announced total ban on liquor in five border distncts Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Tehri and Pauri (Tewari, 1998b).
The anti-liquor campaigns received momentum only in 1984 with the initiation
of 'Nasha nahi, Rojgar do' (Not alcohol, give us employment) movement under the
leadership of Uttarakhand Sangharsh Vahini. Beginning formally on Feb. 2, 1994,
around 20,000 people participated in various demonstrations held in Chaukhutia
(Almora) till the end of the month. The movement spread rapidly to Maasi, Bhikyasain,
Syaalde, Dwarahaat, Gagaas, Someshwar, Tarikhet, Kaphara, Garuda and Baijnaathfinally
crossing the borders of Almora district. Centres of sura-alcohol were raided at
several places, alcohol worth crores was caught by interruptional checking of vehicles plying on roads, people involved in this scandalous business were punishes by painting their faces black; demonstrations, street-plays and meetings were held to create awareness among masses and to mobilize them for eradicating liquor from society. The liquor mafia was afraid by this enthusiasm of people. As a result, there was an unusual fall in the consumption of liquor in the region. Women got a new lease of life and could go out freely and fearlessly. This movement was followed by the announcement of a partial ban on liquor but the demand for complete ban continued (Nainital Samachar, Pachhis saal ka safar, 2003; p.109-114).
This movement, in 1990, transformed into the anti-reservation movement,
which commenced in the area with the announcement of 27% reservation to the OBCs
in government jobs by the V. P. Singh Government (Nainital Samachar, 30 Sep. 1990).
Along with this the people intensified their demand for a separate state that would be
completely free of alcohol. The activists started breaking down the liquor outlets in
various parts of Kumaun and Garhwal. The fact needs to be emphasized that throughout
this movement, the women had been playing an active role. With the expansion of
independent women's organizations (Mahila Sangathans, Mahila Mangal Dals), this
movement also spread. Moreover, in the contemporary context, the anti liquor issues
are being outstandingly taken up by the women's organizations.
In tune with the 'Nasha nahi, Rojgar do' movement of 1984, the women of
Bhatelia, Nainital, started a 'Sharab nahi, Pani do' (Not alcohol, give us water)
program in 1994 (Pandey, 1994 ). When most of the people supported the installation of
the liquor vends, the women carried on their 'Dharna' and demanded 'water',
'employment' and 'health' in place of liquor by raising slogans- "Sharab nahi, Pani
do", "Nasha nahi, Rojgar do" and "Sharab nahi, Swasthya chahiye ". The women of
Harsill too, raided liquor outlets and burnt 'Holi' of the liquor that they had collected
through this move (Rawat, 1994). In spite of the numerous anti-alcohol campaigns
being taken up by the public in the entire Kumaun region, the administration
successfully conducted the auction of liquor vends in 1995-96, under heavy police
protection. Still, under the leadership of various Mahila Sangathans, the anti-alcohol
campaign persisted. In their various meetings, rallies and protest demonstrations, the
women activists prominently used 'Dhol' and 'Damau' (local musical instruments),
songs and folklores for sensitizing and mobilizing the masses. "Larna hai bhai ye to
lambi larai hai, jeetne ke waste mas hal jo jalai hai.. ..... " (Friends we have to fight, this
is a long battle; we have lit the lamp for winning this battle) And "jainta ek din to alo u
din yo duni mein ... ... .... jainta koi na koi to lyalo u din yo duni mein" (A day will
definitely come ....... someone will bring that fateful day on this earth) are two most
popular songs of the movement. The Mahila Sangathans, in a number of places
successfully used the itching grass (Sinna or Bichchhoo Ghas) also as their weapon in the anti-alcohol campaign. Recently, at several places, women groups/organizations have started imposing fines. In Piplati village of district Champawat, they imposed a fine of rupees 500/ on each person found creating disturbance in the village in a drunken state (Amar Ujala, Mar. 27, 2004). The women of Srunkot village near Munsyari (Pithoragarh) recovered rupees 52,500/ from 35 persons involved in
manufacturing illegal country liquor by imposing a fine of rupees 1500/ on each of
them (Amar Ujala, Apr. 17, 2004).
Despite myriad anti-alcohol campaigns, the government has never taken the
issue seriously and besides played double games. New outlets were constantly openedboth in the Kumaun and Garhwal Region. To one's dismay, it opened 263 country andEnglish liquor outlets in total in Kumaun during the year 1995-96 and collected a totalrevenue of rupees 45.83 crore from these outlets (Tewari, 1998a). The dreams of thepeople of Uttaranchal shattered when alcohol started reaching even to the remotevillages under the excise policy of the new government immediately after the formationof Uttaranchal State on November 9, 2000. Seeing no end to their plight, the women areprotesting against government's excise policy at many places 'in the state. Moved by thenegative effects of liquor, women collectives- Women Defence Committees, Village Defence Committees took various initiatives i.e. organized Dharna, Gherao sessions, Chakka .Jam, rallies, protest demonstrations, processions, debates and discussions, meetings, burning the effigy of ministers and contractors, social boycott of MLAs and MLCs, sticking notices agains~ sale and consumption of liquor and proposing boycott of the forthcoming election if the flow of liquor to the region did not stop (Negi, 2001 ). Throughout their struggle, the women collectively have demanded developmental
initiatives from the government with a complete ban on alcohol. They raised slogans
such as- "Nahi chahiye hamein sharab, Hamein chahiye sahi vikas" (we do not need
liquor, we need positive development) and "Pakki hum bikne nahi denge, Kachchi hum
chaine nahi denge" (neither we will allow the sale of legal wine, nor the consumption
of spurious country liquor) (Joshi, 2001 ).
This shows that the women of Uttaranchal hills have not acted as victims. They
have, instead, prepared themselves for fighting bigger battles. It is perhaps their life
circumstances that have made them fearless and expressive to a large extent. Besides being in the forefront in the nationalist Freedom Movement, they have played an activist role in several state level movements too, such as, the 'Chipko' (cling)
movement in 1973-74 to protect trees (Bhatt, 1992), 'Nasha nahi, Rojgar do' (give us
employment, not wine) movement in 1984 against liquor~ and 'Uttarakhand' movement
in 1994 to get a separate state for the hill people (Nainital Samachar: Pachhis Saal Ka
Safar, 2003), and the 'Maiti Andolan' for replenishing the woods by planting new trees
though 'Maill Sangathan' ('Maiti' is derived from a Kumauni word 'mait' which
means maternal home) formed in 1996 (Martoliya, 1997; Bisht, 1998). Thus, with the
power of an indomitable will and courage in the face of innumerable hardships, these
women have participated in almost all the mass movements in Uttaranchal with
incredible vigour and ardour (Sah, 2000).
Contrary to them, the so called male revolutionaries of Uttaranchal have always
shown double standards when it comes to banning liquor because they can not oppose it when they are not drunk. They talk of fighting against the 'system', but not the 'culture' (habit and behaviour of drinking) of liquor (Upadhhyaya, 1999). Women have demonstrated courage and guts both to fight not only against the "culture" but also the "'system" of liquor. It is the united women's power organized under Mahila Mangal Dal, Mahila Samooh, Mahila Morcha, Mahila Jagriti Manch or any other name that has succeeded in banning liquor in a number of villages in Uttaranchal hills, including Chhana and Bhurmuni- two of the four villages selected for the study.
Paper 2 - History of India, National Movement, Society and Culture
Society and Economy during 18th Century
Syllabus - Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India - Warren Hastings, Lord Cornwallis, Lord Wellesley, Lord Hastings, Lord William Bentick, Lord Ellenborough and annexation of Sindh, Lord Auckland and First Afghan War.
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – WARREN HASTINGS
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-warren-hastings/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD CORNWALLIS
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-cornwallis/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – THE MARQUIS OF WELLESLEY
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-the-marquis-of-wellesley/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD HASTINGS
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-hastings/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-william-bentinck/
Indian States and the British
Syllabus- Mysore, Punjab, Avadh, Hyderabad and Maratha : Lord Dalhousie
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD DALHOUSIE
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-dalhousie/
Growth of British Power in India
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/growth-of-british-power-in-india/1510
Syllabus - Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India - Warren Hastings, Lord Cornwallis, Lord Wellesley, Lord Hastings, Lord William Bentick, Lord Ellenborough and annexation of Sindh, Lord Auckland and First Afghan War.
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – WARREN HASTINGS
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-warren-hastings/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD CORNWALLIS
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-cornwallis/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – THE MARQUIS OF WELLESLEY
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-the-marquis-of-wellesley/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD HASTINGS
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-hastings/
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-william-bentinck/
Indian States and the British
Syllabus- Mysore, Punjab, Avadh, Hyderabad and Maratha : Lord Dalhousie
INDIA UNDER THE BRITISH – LORD DALHOUSIE
http://holisticthought.com/india-under-the-british-lord-dalhousie/
Growth of British Power in India
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/growth-of-british-power-in-india/1510
Paper 2 - History of India, National Movement, Society and Culture
Balban’s Theory of Kingship
Policy of Blood and Iron:
Theory of Kingship:
The stern, harsh and violent policy adopted by Balban to suppress the internal revolts and meeting with the challenges posed by foreign invaders of Mongols is known as the policy of blood and iron. The theory of kingship propounded by Balban led to the adoption of the policy of blood and iron. Balban was convinced that the only way to face the internal and external dangers was to increase the power and prestige of the Sultan (King).
‘Sword’ was the chief weapon of Balban to achieve his objectives. He used this weapon with a great vengeance against his rivals, rebels, robbers, thieves and the invaders. By following this policy, he wanted to create terror in the minds of the people that whosoever dared to challenge the authority of the Sultan, he would not be spared.
On account of this policy he was able to remain at the helm of affairs for about 40 years i.e. 20 years as the Naib/Prime Minister of Nasir-ud-din Mohmud and then after as the Sultan of Delhi. He executed his policy of blood and iron very successfully and raised the prestige and power of the Sultan in the eyes of the nobles and his subjects.
Main principles of Balban’s theory of Kingship:
Main principles of the theory of Kingship were as under:
1. Divine right of Kings:
Balban said that the king was the representative of God on the earth and Kingship was a divine institution. He declared this to make the nobles believe that he got the crown or the Kingship not through their mercy but by the mercy of God.
2. Royal descent:
Balban realized that people at that time believed that it was only the prerogative of the ancient royal families to rule and exercise power, he therefore declared that he was the descendant of the legendary Turkish warrior Afrasiyab and that circumstances only had made him a slave.
3. King as a despot:
He said to his son Bughra Khan that “Kingship is the embodiment of despotism”. He believed that it is the “King’s superhuman awe and status which can ensure people’s obedience.
4. Word of difference between descendants of noble lineage and commoners:
Historian Zia-ud-Din Barni has gone to the extent of remarking that whenever Balban saw a man of low birth, his eyes started burning with rage and anger and his hands reached his sword to murder him. This view seems to be on the extreme side. However this much is believable that because of this outlook of Balban, he dismissed all officials not born of noble families, from all important posts.
5. Recognition of tripartite relationship:
Balban emphasized the relationship between God and the Sultan, Sultan and the people and the God and the people. He considered himself the representative of God on the earth to look after the welfare of the people—people created by God. Accordingly he emphasized that treasury should be used for the benefit of his subjects. Likewise the king should be impartial in dispensing justice.
Practical measures to translate the theory of Kingship into operation:
1. Decorum and grandeur of the court:
Balban enforced strict discipline in the court. No one was allowed to indulge in humour or loose talk. He maintained considerable distance from the courtiers. He prescribed the court dress.
2. Adoption of several ceremonies:
Balban introduced the practice of ‘Sijada’ in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground with their forehead in salutation to the king.
3. Appointment of guards:
Balban appointed fearsome and tall guards who were to stand round the king’s person with naked swords in their hands. Whenever he used to go outside the palace, his bodyguards marched with him with naked swords and shouting ‘Bismillah-Bismillah.’
4. Following Persian traditions:
Balban was convinced that the glory of Kingship was possible only by following the Persian traditions and he very carefully followed these traditions in his personal and public life. He named his grandsons on the pattern of Persian kings. He introduced several Persian etiquettes in his court.
5. Always reserved:
Balban never expressed unusual joy or sorrow in public. It is said that even when the news of the death of his eldest son, Mohammad was conveyed to him, he remained unmoved and carried on the administrative work though in his private apartment, he wept bitterly.
6. Strong army:
These is no doubt that a strong army is needed for the sustenance of a powerful monarch. Balban, therefore, strengthened his army.
7. Policy of blood and iron:
A strong and absolute monarch is expected to follow a strict policy in dealing with his enemies. Balban accordingly adopted this policy.
8. Protection from foreign invaders:
The strength of a despotic ruler is also measured by his ability to protect his subjects from external danger. Balban in this regard took effective steps.
Impact/Achievements of Balban:
Baiban’s theory of Kingship coupled with his policy of blood and iron paid him good dividends. He enhanced the prestige of the Sultan. He crushed the powers of his opponents. He brought about peace and order. He saved the country from the invasions of the Mongols.
Policy of Blood and Iron:
Theory of Kingship:
The stern, harsh and violent policy adopted by Balban to suppress the internal revolts and meeting with the challenges posed by foreign invaders of Mongols is known as the policy of blood and iron. The theory of kingship propounded by Balban led to the adoption of the policy of blood and iron. Balban was convinced that the only way to face the internal and external dangers was to increase the power and prestige of the Sultan (King).
‘Sword’ was the chief weapon of Balban to achieve his objectives. He used this weapon with a great vengeance against his rivals, rebels, robbers, thieves and the invaders. By following this policy, he wanted to create terror in the minds of the people that whosoever dared to challenge the authority of the Sultan, he would not be spared.
On account of this policy he was able to remain at the helm of affairs for about 40 years i.e. 20 years as the Naib/Prime Minister of Nasir-ud-din Mohmud and then after as the Sultan of Delhi. He executed his policy of blood and iron very successfully and raised the prestige and power of the Sultan in the eyes of the nobles and his subjects.
Main principles of Balban’s theory of Kingship:
Main principles of the theory of Kingship were as under:
1. Divine right of Kings:
Balban said that the king was the representative of God on the earth and Kingship was a divine institution. He declared this to make the nobles believe that he got the crown or the Kingship not through their mercy but by the mercy of God.
2. Royal descent:
Balban realized that people at that time believed that it was only the prerogative of the ancient royal families to rule and exercise power, he therefore declared that he was the descendant of the legendary Turkish warrior Afrasiyab and that circumstances only had made him a slave.
3. King as a despot:
He said to his son Bughra Khan that “Kingship is the embodiment of despotism”. He believed that it is the “King’s superhuman awe and status which can ensure people’s obedience.
4. Word of difference between descendants of noble lineage and commoners:
Historian Zia-ud-Din Barni has gone to the extent of remarking that whenever Balban saw a man of low birth, his eyes started burning with rage and anger and his hands reached his sword to murder him. This view seems to be on the extreme side. However this much is believable that because of this outlook of Balban, he dismissed all officials not born of noble families, from all important posts.
5. Recognition of tripartite relationship:
Balban emphasized the relationship between God and the Sultan, Sultan and the people and the God and the people. He considered himself the representative of God on the earth to look after the welfare of the people—people created by God. Accordingly he emphasized that treasury should be used for the benefit of his subjects. Likewise the king should be impartial in dispensing justice.
Practical measures to translate the theory of Kingship into operation:
1. Decorum and grandeur of the court:
Balban enforced strict discipline in the court. No one was allowed to indulge in humour or loose talk. He maintained considerable distance from the courtiers. He prescribed the court dress.
2. Adoption of several ceremonies:
Balban introduced the practice of ‘Sijada’ in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground with their forehead in salutation to the king.
3. Appointment of guards:
Balban appointed fearsome and tall guards who were to stand round the king’s person with naked swords in their hands. Whenever he used to go outside the palace, his bodyguards marched with him with naked swords and shouting ‘Bismillah-Bismillah.’
4. Following Persian traditions:
Balban was convinced that the glory of Kingship was possible only by following the Persian traditions and he very carefully followed these traditions in his personal and public life. He named his grandsons on the pattern of Persian kings. He introduced several Persian etiquettes in his court.
5. Always reserved:
Balban never expressed unusual joy or sorrow in public. It is said that even when the news of the death of his eldest son, Mohammad was conveyed to him, he remained unmoved and carried on the administrative work though in his private apartment, he wept bitterly.
6. Strong army:
These is no doubt that a strong army is needed for the sustenance of a powerful monarch. Balban, therefore, strengthened his army.
7. Policy of blood and iron:
A strong and absolute monarch is expected to follow a strict policy in dealing with his enemies. Balban accordingly adopted this policy.
8. Protection from foreign invaders:
The strength of a despotic ruler is also measured by his ability to protect his subjects from external danger. Balban in this regard took effective steps.
Impact/Achievements of Balban:
Baiban’s theory of Kingship coupled with his policy of blood and iron paid him good dividends. He enhanced the prestige of the Sultan. He crushed the powers of his opponents. He brought about peace and order. He saved the country from the invasions of the Mongols.
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